The Perpetual Struggle for Domination: A Leitmotif in Human History

Since the dawn of humanity, human groups have been driven by an incessant quest: that of domination. Whether within a small tribal group or a sprawling empire, the pursuit of power, control, and supremacy has shaped relationships between societies and molded the course of history. This constant, omnipresent in all eras and cultures, invites us to a deep reflection on the mechanisms that govern intra- and intergroup relations and the underlying motivations.

From Early Societies to Written History: Competition for Survival, Domination in Germ

The history of humanity, in its prehistory as in its writings, is an uninterrupted narration of struggles for domination. Early human groups, nomadic and dependent on hunting and gathering, competed for scarce resources and control of hunting territories. The most organized groups dominated others, thus ensuring a better chance of survival. Domination often manifested through alliances formed to face common adversaries, leading to complex relationships between groups and classes.

Paleontological and archaeological studies shed light on this ancestral struggle. Traces of physical violence found on human bones dating from the Paleolithic, rudimentary weapons discovered at excavation sites, and migration patterns of groups testify to the inherent violence in intergroup relations. The competition between different species of the genus Homo, such as Homo neanderthalensis and Homo sapiens, underscores that domination is not a phenomenon unique to modern humans but a fundamental element of evolutionary history. Our most distant ancestors were therefore not spared from this irrepressible urge to dominate others.

The emergence of agriculture around 10,000 years ago marked a major turning point. Sedentarization, population concentration, and resource accumulation led to intensified competition. Villages, then cities and states, emerged, each seeking to dominate others to access fertile lands, natural resources, and control trade routes.

The Emergence of States and Empires: Institutionalized Domination

The written history of humanity is marked by fierce struggles for supremacy between civilizations. Ancient Egypt experienced a hierarchy dominated by pharaohs, who built empires by seeking to control the lands along the Nile, up to Nubia. The Babylonians, for their part, established legal codes and administrative systems that allowed them to rule over vast regions of Mesopotamia.

The Achaemenids, a Persian empire, managed to unify diverse cultures under their banner while using diplomatic strategies to maintain their domination. Similarly, the Assyrians imposed their power by force, creating an efficient centralized administration that facilitated the control of extensive territories.

In Asia, Chinese and Japanese empires fought for regional supremacy, while civilizations on the Indian subcontinent also created vast empires like those of the Maurya and Gupta, imbued with cultural and religious innovations.

Pre-Columbian America also presents emblematic cases. The Mayans and Incas built sophisticated societies, respectively centered on religious and political connivances, while Native Americans resisted European invasion by forming coalitions.

In the West, the Greeks experienced a golden age through their conquering spirit and wars between city-states. They laid the foundations of Western thought while facing the military advances of the Romans, who forged a sprawling empire, uniting a thousand cultures in one space.

The Arab-Muslim expansion in the Middle Ages then created new dynamics, uniting peoples under one religion while achieving an impressive cultural synthesis. European powers, notably the French, English, and later the Americans, manifested a will to dominate, mainly through colonialism, which culminated in the 19th century. These struggles for domination are not only a reflection of national rivalries but also of classes and religions vying for control of resources.

Each civilization developed its own strategy to assert its power: from brutal military conquests to strategic alliances, cultural and commercial exchanges to policies of assimilation and suppression of local identities. The Roman Empire, for example, dominated the Mediterranean basin for centuries thanks to its powerful army, legal system, and ability to assimilate conquered cultures. The Arab-Muslim empire, for its part, spread its culture and religion worldwide, partly through the dissemination of scientific knowledge and commercial exchanges.

Religion and Culture as Tools of Domination

Religion has often served as an ideology to legitimize domination. Great empires have often used religion to justify their conquests, create a sense of unity, and impose their will on subjected populations. Monotheistic religions, in particular, have been used to justify holy wars, persecutions, and forced conversions. History is filled with examples of religious conflicts, such as the Christian crusades, wars between Hindus and Muslims in India, or civil wars between Catholics and Protestants in Europe.

Culture also plays a role in domination. Dominant groups have often sought to impose their language, art, lifestyle, and values on subjected populations. The Romanization of Europe, the spread of French culture in Africa, and American influence worldwide are concrete examples of this cultural domination.

Competition/Domination and Cooperation/Coexistence: A Permanent Dialectic

It would be erroneous to see only domination in human history; struggles for domination should not obscure the reality of cooperation. Human groups have often cooperated for common defense, trade, knowledge exchange, and conflict resolution.

Anthropology has shown that cooperation is often conditioned by the perception of a common threat. Nomadic tribes united to face common enemies, states formed alliances to protect against invasions, and empires built trade networks to ensure their prosperity.

Abundant historical archives demonstrate that empires thrived not only through conquest but also through integration and assimilation policies. For example, the Roman Empire had the ability to incorporate diverse cultures while exercising its domination. Mixed marriages, intellectual exchanges, and economic exchanges bridged conflicts while cementing Roman control.

Role Reversals: Domination and Rebellion

Human history is also paved with spectacular reversals of roles between dominants and dominated. Empires and civilizations, once undisputed masters, often found themselves at the mercy of those they had dominated. For example, as the Roman Empire collapsed, new forces like the Franks and other Germanic tribes emerged, turning the situation to their advantage.

In the context of colonialism, the dynamic between Muslims and Europeans also reversed. Successive dominations, from one empire to another, generated resentments that persisted. The formerly dominated, once in power, often forgot the abusive practices they had once engaged in when they were in a position of strength.

This continuity in cycles of domination reveals an essential lesson: historical memory is often selective, and the claims of justice raised by the newly dominated sometimes hide similar behaviors when they held power.

Intra-Societal Struggles: Internal Hierarchies

Struggles for domination are not limited to relations between external groups. Within each society, hierarchies exist and manifest in various forms. Social dynamics include power struggles among different groups: social classes, ethnic groups, and even in gender contexts.

In contemporary societies, conflicts do not only arise in cases of physical violence. Political, economic, and cultural struggles are constant, often masked by appearances of peace. Tensions between classes, struggles for equal rights, or internal religious conflicts are examples showing that the quest for preeminence is deeply rooted, even in societies that claim to be pacified.

Current social movements illustrate this dynamic well. Claims for civil rights, gender equality, and economic justice reveal a battleground where internal hierarchies are continually challenged.

Conclusion

In the light of human history, struggles for domination constitute a fundamental and recurring phenomenon. Whether between groups, nations, or within a society, these struggles constantly shape our reality. Understanding this historical dynamic allows us to grasp contemporary challenges. Cooperation, although essential, often unfolds in a context of rivalry, highlighting the complexity of human relations.

History is a mirror that allows us to question our own actions, the motivations that drive us, and the dangers of domination. It reminds us that humanity is capable of great cruelties but also great solidarities. It is up to us to choose which path we want to take, remembering that the path of domination and revolt is always at our doorstep.

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